Directions:  In groups of four define AND illustrate briefly six of these common rhetorical fallacies.  Complete Group Report for hand in. 

1. Begging the question:  A form of circular reasoning that assumes some or part of an assertion has already been proven.  The conclusion is drawn on basis of evidence contained in a restate-ment of the conclusion.  Because of this repetition, it is called begging the question.  Examples:

 "The absence of evidence is not evidence of its absence." (Rumsfeld)
 "I believe in large and permanent tax cuts because thatís what I believe."  (Bush)
 The sky is blue because it is blue.

2. Rhetorical question:  This kind of argument raises a loaded question that the speaker does not really want answered or whose answer is assumed to be obvious.  Examples:

 When was the last time you told the truth?
 Do you still cheat on your taxes?

3. Ad hominem ("o the man"): Instead of attacking the argument, the speaker attacks the person who makes it or those associated with that person.  Examples:

 Judge Jones is a KKK sympathizer who must not be reelected.
 How can anyone support a gay rights candidate?

4. Stereotyping:  Instead of describing people as they actually are as individuals, this argument labels people according to some classification (ethnic, social, religious, sex, etc.) assumed to be true that ignores differences and emphasizes similarities OR ignores similarities and emphasizes differences.  Examples:

 Dumb blond.  Macho jock.  Woman driver.  Irish drunk.  Angry red head.  Red neck.

5. Either-or (black-or-white):  This fallacy oversimplifies a complex problem or issue by assuming that there are only two sides to it or but two possible alternatives; it  overlooks the possibility of a middle-ground position.  Examples:

 There are two kinds of people--those who classify things and those who don't.
 Do you want to go to college or dig ditches all your life?

6. False Dilemma:  Like the either-or fallacy, the false dilemma presents two (or a limited number of options) and then demands that one be chosen.  This fallacy assumes that the solution to an issue or problem lies only in the choices specified.  Examples:

 "America--Love It or Leave It!"
 "You're with us [USA] or you're against us."  (Bush)
 Illegal immigration: send them all back to Mexico or put them in jail.
 

7. Statistical fallacy:  The misuse of figures, numbers, percentages, graphs, and so leads to a false conclusion.  This fallacy overlooks the reality that in themselves, statistics prove nothing.  A valid statistical argument depends on the accuracy of the statistics, who asserts them, and above all, how they are interpreted.  In short, statistics in themselves prove nothing. Example:

 Nine out of ten doctors recommend Crest toothpaste.

8. Loose generalization:  This is a false, or more commonly, partly false statement about a group or class of ideas, events, or persons.  Example:

 I have never owned a Ford that wasní' a lemon.  Fords are unreliable.

9. Causal fallacy: This fallacy is the result of:  (1) identifying  the wrong cause of a particular situation, or (2) failing  to recognize that more than one cause is or could be involved, or (3) being misled by the order of events (non sequitur).  Examples:

 The real cause of alcoholism is advertising.
 My neighbor became an alcoholic after a false arrest.
 Muslims hate America because they reject our love of freedom and democracy.

10. Faulty sampling: Here a generalization or conclusion is based on samples that are  not representative of the group from which they are taken.  Example: 

 All my friends agree that Mr. Johnson is a terrible math teacher.

11. False analogy: This argument is based on a faulty comparison to two things that are more different than they are alike.  As appealing as they sometimes are, analogies prove nothing!

 Since surgeons use x-rays during operations, students should be allowed to use textbooks
 during final exams.
 "Like World War II, the Iraq war is a matter of our nation's survival." (Bush)

12. Ignoring the question: In the course of an argument, irrelevant or somewhat related side-issues are brought up which have no direct bearing on the issue at hand.  This fallacy is often the result of employing one or more of other fallacies. Example:

 "The real issue is not why so many people hate America but why they do not see
 democracy as Godís gift to nations."  (Bush)

13. Straw man:  This argument  reduces an opponentís argument or an objection to one's position to a "straw man,"  that is, a phony statement (often a simplification or an exaggeration) that can readily be shown to be false.  Example:

 Real gun control means leveling the playing field by making all guns legal.
 Illegal immigrants are stealing American jobs. 

14. Quoting out of context:  An opponent's words are taken out of their original context and, as a result, their intended meaning is distorted or lost entirely.  Example:

 "Judas went out an hung himself. . . Go thou and do in like manner."

15. Real people appeal: This appeal is based on a kind of stereotyping that implies "just plain folks" know better than the so-called experts.  Example:

 Like any real American, the governor of Ca-li-for-ni-a, has no use for "girlie" men oppose his plan to increase tax
         cuts for corporations.

16. Sloganeering:  This argument reduces the solution to a complex problem or controversial issue to a single statement that is easily recalled.  Example

 "My country--right or wrong."  
"Youíre in safe hands with All State."

17.  Guilt trip: This argument tries to persuade its audience to do something out of a sense guilt.

 How long are you going to break your mother's heart by dating Bubba?

18. Band wagon:  This false appeal is based on the assumption that because a large group believes in something or does something,  it must be good or true.  Example:

 Democrats supported the Iraq War because they did not want to appear any less patriotic than Republicans.

19. Testimonial: This argument is based on the endorsement of  a highly respected personality--an authority figure, a national or sports hero, a superstar, and so on.  Example:

 If these Nike shoes are good enough for Michael Jordan, why not for you?

20. Rationalizing: This argument is dishonest because it substitutes the real reason for doing something or believing in something with an excuse.  Example:

 Marijuana ought to be legalized because alcohol is a greater health hazard.

21. Selective omission: This appeal may be the most insidious of all fallacies because it tells the truth BUT omits to tell ìthe whole truth.î  As a result, we cannot say  the argument is false; it simply omits that part of the truth which does not enhance its position.  For this reason, in a court of law, the witness must take an oath  (1) to tell the truth, (2) the whole truth, and (3) nothing but the truth.

 "If it doesn't fit, you must acquit!"  Johnny Cockran, O.J. Simpson trial.

22. Stacking the deck: This appeal is similar to selective omission because it emphasizes only those things which make oneís candidate look good or makes oneís opponent look bad.   In other words the argument is one-sided.  Example:

 A current, controversial issue is illegal immigration because of the equivocal use of the word amnesty.

23.  Red herring:  The introduction of an irrelevant topic or subject to intentionally divert attention from the issue at hand. To lead hound dogs off their scent, criminals in England sometimes dragged a dead herring on their trail to confuse them.

 Is it true, Mr. President, that Saddam Hussein had no weapons of mass destruction?
 I have said repeatedly that removal of Saddam Hussein was the right thing to do.

24.  Slippery slope:  The argument here is that if one thing is allowed, it will or could easily lead to something worse which could also lead to something yet worse.  It is sometimes called the domino effect.

 Some politicians want to ban cigarettes.  Will alcohol be next?  Will high-fat foods or caffeine be next?  Today itís cigarettes.  What will it be tomorrow?  R. J. Reynolds Co.